Vitamin E is an antioxidative nutrient, meaning it protects body tissue from damage, found in various food products like seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables and vegetable oils – as well as available as a dietary supplement – known as alpha-tocopherol.
Observational studies suggest that vitamin E supplements could provide some protection against certain forms of cancer; however, clinical trials have yet to support this claim.
Antioxidant
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin known to act as an antioxidant and prevent cell damage caused by reactive chemicals known as free radicals. It can be found in many foods including vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables and meat products; additionally it’s available as a dietary supplement and considered safe for most adults. Also referred to as alpha-tocopherol it can aid in keeping both heart and vision health at optimal levels, protecting against cancer as well as other illnesses.
Antioxidants are molecules that donate or steal electrons to stabilize other molecules. Antioxidants protect the body from free radical damage caused by foods we break down for energy or by cigarettes, air pollution and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight; free radicals may contribute to heart disease, cancer and premature aging as well as cause other problems. Food sources with antioxidants include vitamins A, C, E and carotenoids.
Researchers began investigating the possible advantages of antioxidants in the 1980s when they recognized that free radical damage may contribute to atherosclerosis and lead to other chronic conditions. Since then, multiple studies have linked high intakes of antioxidants with decreased risks for heart disease and cancer.
Vitamin E may act as an antioxidant in the body by neutralizing free radicals that cause damage, while at the same time helping enhance immune function and delay aging processes. Furthermore, research suggests it could play an integral part in protecting against neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
Studies have demonstrated the power of vitamin E as an antioxidant, and its sources include vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, meats, fruits and leafy vegetables. While intake from food sources generally considered safe, supplement doses (150 IU per day or higher) have been linked with an increased risk of mortality according to several studies.
Anti-inflammatory
Vitamin E is an anti-oxidant and protects the body by neutralizing free radicals. Additionally, its anti-oxidative properties may help stop unsaturated fats from being oxidized – offering protection from cardiovascular conditions like coronary heart disease. Vitamin E can be found in many food items or as dietary supplements; its anti-inflammatory properties may even help treat chronic diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s by restricting oxidation of their proteins and lipids within the brain and nervous system.
Studies of vitamin E’s effects on inflammation and related diseases have produced mixed results. Some research suggests it reduces inflammatory response in vitro and animal models; while other research fails to show any effect. More study must be conducted into how specific isomers of vitamin E interact with inflammation and related disorders.
Vitamin E’s phenolic group can donate an oxygen atom to reactive oxygen species (ROS), neutralizing them and protecting cells against their potentially damaging effects. Furthermore, its protective phenolic group could possibly shield other molecules’ hydroxyl groups such as double bonds found in unsaturated fats from potential ROS attacks.
Vitamin E plays an essential role in combatting inflammation. It is commonly found in foods like green vegetables and nuts, and also widely available as a dietary supplement in the form of alpha-tocopherol (also dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate or tocotrienols).
Vitamin E is an essential nutrient for humans and animals alike, providing protection from oxidative damage and other diseases. Studies have linked low intakes to increased risks of death and cancer; however, recent results from a large trial called the SELECT study indicate that high doses may increase prostate cancer risks among male subjects – follow-up studies are underway.
As vitamin E requires fat for absorption, those who suffer from digestive disorders that impair fat absorption are at greater risk of deficiency than others. This includes those living with Crohn’s disease or cystic fibrosis whose diet frequently includes greasy stool; or pancreatic cancer who cannot release enough bile into their digestive tract to produce adequate amounts.
Anti-ageing
Vitamin E is an anti-oxidant that provides cells with protection from damage caused by free radicals – dangerous molecules that take small parts from other cells to become stronger themselves and create damage within. Free radicals have been linked with diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, as well as ageing skin conditions like wrinkles. Antioxidants like vitamin E prevent free radicals from damaging cells while helping repair any previous damage they have done.
Studies suggest that vitamin E could offer some protection from heart disease by stopping the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol oxidation – one of the key steps involved in atherosclerosis development – as well as helping prevent blood clots that could potentially lead to heart attacks or venous thromboembolisms. Unfortunately, clinical trials have yet to show whether taking additional supplemental vitamin E significantly lowers cardiovascular event risks among people at standard risks.
High doses of vitamin E can have adverse side effects on both the lungs and liver. Furthermore, large dosages may interfere with fat absorption and decrease absorption of other fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamin A. When excessive vitamin E supplementation becomes toxic to your health, its use should immediately cease along with supportive medical attention being provided to mitigate further effects.
alpha-tocopherol is the most prevalent form of vitamin E found in foods and dietary supplements, though other forms such as tocopheryl acetate and succinate may also exist. While food companies sometimes add esterification agents to extend shelf life, humans can easily hydrolyze these esters and absorb them just as efficiently as alpha-tocopherol.
Many people take vitamin E as a dietary supplement after hearing reports that it can lower their risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer, but these reports are based on small clinical trials; high-dose vitamin E supplements have also been associated with an increased mortality risk.
Recent mice studies demonstrated how diets rich in vitamin E reduced oxidative stress and delayed age-related decline in brain function. This effect could be explained by decreased numbers of p53-positive cells affected by oxidative stress that trigger cell death.
Immune system
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes from damage due to oxidative stress, while also playing an integral part in signal transduction and immune modulation. Studies on both animals and humans have demonstrated its immunostimulatory properties, suggesting it can improve resistance against infections and allergic diseases by directly and indirectly acting upon immune cells and organ systems. Vitamin E has been demonstrated to significantly affect the development, function, and regulation of dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, natural killer cells (NK) cells, and T cells. Its effect can be explained through its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species while decreasing oxidative stress; furthermore it has also been found to prevent TNF-a activation.
Recent animal and human studies have demonstrated that vitamin E supplementation strengthens immune responses against multiple pathogens, specifically by increasing DC function and maturation, increasing cell activation and proliferation, inhibiting ROS-induced mitochondrial damage inhibition, increasing frequency of IL-2 producing CD4+ T cells producing IFN-g production as well as upregulating Klotho expression, an early step of T cell activation.
Vitamin E’s immunostimulatory effects could also stem from its ability to influence lipid raft dynamics, an essential step in T cell activation. Studies conducted on primary human T cells using Vitamin E demonstrated increased LAT phosphorylation on Tyrosine 191, leading to microcluster formation that recruit adaptor and effector proteins; additionally it has been proven that Vitamin E can prevent activation-induced T cell death by blocking NF-kB binding to CD95L promoter.
Studies of vitamin E’s immunomodulatory properties have mostly focused on its -tocopherol form; however, other forms of the vitamin, such as tocotrienols may provide similar functions. Thus future investigations should aim at uncovering specific molecular mechanisms by which vitamin E affects immune cell functions and interactions.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays an essential role in overall health. It supports vision, reproduction, immunity system function and cell development – as well as having antioxidant properties which may protect against some cancers. You can find vitamin A in foods like meats, dairy products and plant-based sources like spinach, carrots, sweet potatoes and cantaloupe as well as in dietary supplement forms like retinyl acetate palmitate or beta carotene supplements.
Vitamin D works with vitamin A to support bone health, vision and immune system function; however it also serves important functions including cell growth, regulation of the immune system, formation of skeletal tissue and epithelial cells that line internal and external tissues and protection against infection. Research has also demonstrated its efficacy at lowering measles risk and helping children recover more rapidly after contracting the illness by stimulating white blood cell production and increasing mucus membrane resistance to toxins.
Deficits of vitamin B-12 are relatively uncommon in Western countries, yet can occur through malabsorption caused by celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, cirrhosis or cystic fibrosis of the digestive tract as well as those who limit their diet due to financial or personal considerations. A severe deficiency could result in night blindness, skin issues and reduced immunity levels – or even night blindness itself!
Good sources of vitamin A include liver, egg yolks, fish oil, milk and whole-milk dairy products as well as fortified breakfast cereals. Some yellow and orange fruits and vegetables such as pumpkin, acorn squash, sweet potato mango cantaloupe are rich sources. Kale, turnip greens and broccoli plants also contain this nutrient. Vitamin A supplements come most commonly as retinyl acetate palmitate or beta-carotene forms.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C is an essential nutrient, vital in helping fight infections, heal wounds and maintain tissues health. Furthermore, its antioxidant properties protect cells against free radical damage by blocking free radicals (highly reactive chemicals). Unfortunately, Vitamin C cannot be produced naturally within our bodies so it must come from food or supplements. Adults should consume 90 milligrams of vitamin C daily in the form of ascorbic acid, an active form found in all fruits and vegetables such as citrus fruits, strawberries, cantaloupe, tomatoes, green peppers and broccoli. Vitamin C is water-soluble so excess amounts leave the body through urine production; deficiency of it leads to scurvy with symptoms including bleeding gums and an enlarged tongue.
Linus Pauling, Nobel Prize recipient, proposed vitamin C could prevent and treat colds in 1970; however, subsequent clinical trials have yielded mixed results.
Vitamin C stands out as one of the most promising potential benefits, particularly its role in lowering cardiovascular disease risk by inhibiting LDL oxidation and subsequent build-up of plaque in blood vessels, leading to coronary heart disease (CHD). A large prospective cohort study has discovered that individuals who consume higher dietary intakes of vitamin C tend to be at reduced risk for CHD.
Vitamin C could also play a vital role in cancer prevention, according to one meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. A meta-analysis concluded that individuals who consume more vitamin C had reduced risks of cancer than those consuming lower intakes; however, other studies have not demonstrated an association between higher vitamin C intakes (from either diet or supplements) and reduced cancer risks.
A meta-analysis of 29 randomized controlled trials also concluded that co-supplementation with vitamin C and E did not reduce preeclampsia risk in pregnant women; though some individual trials showed some benefit. Other clinical trials have concluded that supplementing with vitamin C does not significantly lower the incidence of stroke for individuals who either have high blood pressure or take antihypertensives. Studies have proven that taking too much vitamin C may increase blood pressure and hasten cholesterol deposition into arteries (atherosclerosis). Therefore, those taking antihypertensives should not rely on vitamin C alone to lower their blood pressure.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and antioxidant, known for protecting cells against damage while simultaneously having anti-inflammatory and immune-enhancing properties. It can be found in food sources like seeds, nuts, green vegetables and vegetable oils; while its supplement form may also be taken to help prevent or treat cardiovascular disease, cancer, eye disorders and cognitive decline associated with normal aging. Studies have demonstrated its efficacy at preventing blood clots and decreasing cancer risks.
Vitamin E is vital to human health as an antioxidant that protects lipid membranes of cells from free radical attack, reduces inflammation and inhibits cholesterol oxidation in the blood. Multiple studies have indicated that people who take more Vitamin E-rich supplements tend to experience lower rates of cardiovascular disease and death than those consuming lower amounts. [5]
Vitamin E can be found in many food and beverage sources, from edible vegetable oils (particularly soybean oil) and raw vegetables to fruits. Alpha-tocopherol is one of the main forms of Vitamin E available, found both as supplements and fortified food products. Alpha-tocopherol may be esterified to extend shelf life but when digested by our bodies hydrolyses and absorbs these esters just like its un-esterified form (alpha-tocopheryl acetate and succinate).
Deficits in people who primarily consume vitamin E through food sources are unlikely, although those living with medical conditions that lead to fat malabsorption — like cystic fibrosis or Crohn’s disease — have increased risk. Also of note is taking medications which impede absorption. [6]
Studies of high dose vitamin E supplements and heart disease risk reduction have been supported by observational evidence; however, most randomized clinical trials have failed to show such benefits. Furthermore, high-dose supplements may increase prostate cancer risks in men. It is therefore wise to exercise caution when supplementing with this vitamin [7]
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin found in food sources such as eggs and available as dietary supplements. As part of a class of chemicals known as naphthoquinones, humans need vitamin K to make proteins necessary for blood clotting and bone building, while it also regulates calcium intake in their bodies.
Vitamins can be produced naturally in the large intestine from bacteria, but most come through diet. Once consumed, however, most are quickly broken down and excreted via urine or stool; although high dietary intakes have no known toxic side-effects. There has been concern that low blood levels of this vitamin may increase heart disease risk.
Scientists suspect that low vitamin K intake causes the blood vessels feeding the heart (arteries) to stiffen and narrow, increasing risk for coronary heart disease. Unfortunately, research is limited, and more investigation must be completed in order to confirm these findings.
The vitamin K family includes two naturally-occurring forms, known as phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinones (2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), both composed of carbon atoms with unsaturated isoprenoid groups; their main difference lies in their side chain lengths containing four isoprenoid carbon groups and which currently used in multivitamin supplements as four isoprenoid carbon chains are most often seen (MK-4 and MK-7 are particularly well studied).
Phylloquinone is the form of vitamin K most frequently consumed through food or as a multivitamin supplement; other forms such as menaquinones may exist but tend to be consumed less widely.
Food composition databases indicate that different sources of vitamin contain different amounts of menaquinones. A study with 4,807 healthy adults aged 55-74 found higher intakes of menaquinones were linked with decreased risks for CHD and all-cause mortality; this could be largely attributed to individuals in the highest tertile of intake having significantly less aortic calcification, an indicator of CVD risk. Therefore, additional research regarding effects of diet high in menaquinones on heart disease outcomes as well as other outcomes would be desirable.
